The Transformation of Form.
The evolution that took place in the human form in Greek sculpture, from the Archaic to the Hellenistic period, is also the link between the naturalism of the Renaissance and the abstract designs of the Egyptians.Contact between the Greeks and Egyptians began after the Egyptians conquered the Assyrians in 672 BC. After this, trade routes were at last opened to the Greeks in the east. Herodotus wrote that the Egyptian king Psammetichos (c.660-609 BC) gave the Ionians and Carians 'places to dwell in....on either side of the Nile' and that they were 'the first men of alien speech to settle in Egypt'.
This contact with the Egyptians directly influenced Greek art. Before this time, during the Geometric period (900-660 BC.), Greek sculpture had consisted of small terra cotta or solid bronze figures that were geometric and angular in form. These figures were depictions of the gods and used mainly as votive figures inside temples and sanctuaries.
 A. Greek Kouros |
 B. Egyptian Figure |
There are many similarities between Greek sculpture of the Archaic period and the sculpture of Egypt. Both figures are shown frontally in stiff poses that have the left leg advanced. The shoulders, hips, and knees are all parallel to the ground without evidence of any tilt or lean. The arms are slightly bent at the elbow and hang down to the sides. There is also no contrapposto or distribution of weight in the figure. The figure is block-like with muscles 'attached' to the body.Although these similarities are obvious, there are some differences that separate the two styles as well.
In the Egyptian figure, the arms are 'married' or fused to the body without negative space between them. In the Greek figure, the arms hang away from the body and are only attached at the hand and hip. There is also a supporting column that remains behind and fused to the Egyptian figure while the Greek figure is freestanding without any support. The Egyptian head and facial features are smoother and more natural compared to the Greek's, which are block-like with bulbous eyes, a pierced mouth, and enlarged ears. Another contrast is the male figure is usually clothed in Egyptian art, whereas the Greek male figure is normally depicted nude (Figures A. and B.).
At the beginning of the Archaic period (660-480 BC.), Greek sculpture
became life size and larger and began to take on a more natural appearance.
Geometric forms were slowly becoming more rounded and less angular.
The figures depicted were now also human, and not only cult figures
or gods.To construct larger works, Greek artists began to use new methods
and materials. By using beaten sheets of bronze or gold fitted to a
wooden core by iron struts, they could construct massive figures. These
cult figures were placed inside the 'naos', or center of temples. This
type of sculpture is called 'cryselephantine' and literally means 'large
ivory and gold'. Nothing remains of these massive figures other than
accounts from ancient writers and large ivory heads. The wooden cores
have disintegrated due to the moist climate and the iron struts and
bronze sheets have been reused by later inhabitants of Greece to make
weapons.
Instead of using limestone and dorite like the Egyptians, the Greek
artists used white marble, which they had an abundance of and were already
skilled at forming. All stone sculpture, unlike bronze, was painted
with a waxy pigment called 'Gynosis'. The paint was applied while hot
and cooled to a hard shell that covered the figure. This paint gave
the sculpture a lifelike quality and helped to hide joints between the
limbs and body of many pieces. If an error was made during sculpting,
the inferior part would be removed and then replaced with a new limb
carved or molded separately. The method of painting stone sculpture
would last throughout to the end of the Hellenistic period.The Archaic
period did not end suddenly with the beginning of the Classical period.
There was, however, a smooth transition from one period to the other.
Artwork created during this transitional period is usually labeled as
'severe' in style. The name 'severe' is derived from the extreme use
of contrapposto, formalism, and frozen expression. The frontal pose
of the archaic figure begins to twist and shift.
 Figure C: Kritos Boy |
An early example of this is the "Kritos Boy" carved from marble at around 480 BC (Figure C).There is a slight weight shift in the hips as the figure leans back, letting the rear leg carry most of the weight. Problems with the working methods in marble became evident as artists pushed toward naturalism. Unbalanced, unsymmetrical forms were difficult for the sculptor to conceive in marble. Marble becomes weak if too much stress or weight is placed on a particular spot. To overcome this the sculptor perfected the technique of casting the figure in bronze. Life size figures were made of hollow bronze that were cast from a clay mold and wooden core. This method called 'cire-perdu', or 'lost wax method' was performed with a model formed in wax and then covered with clay. The clay would then be fired. During the clay being fired, the wax would melt, leaving a hollow mold for the molten metal to be poured into. A central core of wood was placed inside the mold to prevent the liquid metal from filling the entire mold and the sculptor could save materials. After casting, the bronze sculpture was left bare and shined regularly with a soft cloth.This newly found method of creating durable, life-size sculpture helped the Greek artist to solve all problems of naturalism. This can be seen in an example of a bronze sculpture from the Early Classical or "transitional" period entitled "Discobolos", by the sculptor Myron in 450 BC. (Figure E.).
 |
 |
| Figure E: Discobolos | Figure F: Hermes and Dionysos |
The Discobolos is a surviving Roman marble copy of the original Greek bronze. The Romans used devices like the tree stump, seen behind the disc thrower's lower legs, to support the weight of their figures created in marble. Otherwise, in a figure such as this where most of the weight is supported by one leg, it would more than likely fall over or break off at the ankles.
The style of the High Classical period in Greek sculpture is characterized by flowing, smooth forms. The use of the S-curve in earlier works, like the Kritos Boy become more pronounced and elegant. Praxiteles, one of the most famous Greek sculptors, was the founder of this tradition in the flowing figure. An example of the emphasized flow is shown in his sculpture of Hermes and Dionysos created in 340 BC. (Figure F.).The High Classical period had a major influence on the art of the Renaissance and many similarities between these two periods are apparent. Both periods use the figure to express the perfection in humanity as a whole and view man to be the center of all things. Also, the studies of anatomy and portrayal of the "perfect form" are used in their arts. A comparison of two works, "Dying Gaul" (figure G) from the Hellenistic period , and "Dusk" (figure H), by Michelangelo, from the Renaissance clearly show the similarities between these two periods.
 Figure G: Dying Gaul, 438-32 BC. |
 Figure H: Night, 1522-34 AD. |
By the end of the High Classical period, the Greek artist began to move toward the portrayal of emotion, realism, and abstract ideas such as death, love, pity, and disgust. The figure became secondary to the expression of the artist's ideas. The observer is forced to emotionally interact with the composition. Diagonal, thrusting lines and twisting forms create a dynamic movement within the compositions. This is shown in a famous Hellenistic piece, the Laocoon, created during the first century BC. by the three sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydoros.(Figure I). After studying these different views of the human figure by Greek artist, one can clearly understand that the evolution of the Greek figure in sculpture is also the "transition point" from the flat, geometric figures of ancient Egyptian to the flowing, ideal figures of the Renaissance.
 Figure I: Laocoon, 1st century BC. |