Wilkinson, Richard H. Symbol and Magic in Egyptian Art. London: Thames and Hudson, 1994.
The author begins the book with an introduction that discusses Egyptian art as pure symbolism. He defines symbols as representing something other than what they actually depict. For the Egyptian, this was a link to controlling nature itself. The Egyptian believed that through symbolic magic, nature could be controlled. By depicting certain events through art, the artist could bring a positive outcome to an event in reality.
Wilkinson divides Egyptian symbolism aspects into nine aspects that are predominate in Egyptian art. These nine categories are: Form, Size, Location, Material, Color, Number, Hieroglyph, Actions, and Gestures. Each chapter is devoted to giving explanations and examples of each aspect.
The first chapter, Through Egyptian Eyes, Symbolism of Form, describes how the relationship of form, symbolism, and magical function may be present in all classes of objects in Egyptian culture. Wilkinson says that form in Egyptian art may be expressed at "primary" and "secondary" levels of association.
In primary, or direct, association, the form of an object directly suggests ideas related to the object portrayed. An example is the "Djed" pillar that symbolizes the backbone of Osiris and is also the symbol of support. In the tomb of Nefertiti this symbol is painted on columns to directly symbolize support of the tomb's ceiling and the presence of the god Osiris. The "Djed" pillar is directly associated with supporting the tomb's ceiling.
In secondary, or indirect, association, the form of the object suggests another form that has its own meaning and symbolic significance. An example of this would be an amulet in the shape of many grapes. The grapes are symbolic of the heart and life itself because of their shape and color, but are indirectly associated with the heart and life they represent.
The second chapter, Measure and Meaning, the Symbolism of Size, describes how the relationship of size was predominating in Egyptian art. Perspective was not a factor to the hierarchic scaling used by the Egyptian artists. Monarchs were frequently portrayed towering above all other figures in compositions to show their strength and dominance over their kingdom or enemies. Many aspects of the afterlife were believed to have supernatural dimensions. The inhabitants of the underworld were also believed to be of huge proportions. One example is the deceased king shown harvesting grain that grows to the height of his head. Equality of size, or isocephaly, shows the equality between figures depicted in an artwork. An example of this would be a god and the king painted on the same level. Isocephaly may even take place if the god is seated. The god's throne would be raised on a platform to make the god and king of equal height. The king was rarely shown smaller than the gods, for this showed a weakness of his position.
The third chapter, Position and Placement, the Symbolism of Location, describes the orientation of objects in Egyptian art. The author breaks this down into two aspects, absolute position and relative placement. Absolute position is the actual location of an object or structure while relative placement is the placement of an object within that structure or in relation to the other objects around it. An example of absolute placement would be the location of an entrance pylon facing east to form an "akhet" or horizon for the sun to rise over. An example of relative placement would be the placement of the winged solar disk over the central axis of the temple to signify the path of the sun.
Significance in Substance, the Symbolism of Materials, is the fourth chapter. This chapter describes the nature of materials used by the Egyptian artist. Wilkinson gives an example of how materials may have importance to us today. Today, we use expressions like, "a golden opportunity,""a leaden feeling,"or "an iron will."
Gold, for example, was the most important metal to the Egyptians. Not only from an economic, but also from a symbolic standpoint. Gold was regarded as a divine substance due to its brightness and its ability not to tarnish with time. Both characteristics were metaphors for symbols of the sun and eternal life. Another example is iron. Because the only source of iron naturally available to the Egyptians was from meteors, this metal was known as the "metal of heaven" and regarded as divine. The author goes on to describe the importance of many other substances used in Egyptian art to include metals, stones and woods.
The fifth chapter, The Appearance of the World, the Symbolism of Color, shows how color played an integral part of an object's nature or being to the Egyptians. Wilkinson gives a list of the Egyptian palette colors with a description of how each was made and what its symbolic uses were. An example is the color red. Red (desher) was made from a naturally occurring oxide associated with fire and blood. Red could also symbolize life and regeneration or could symbolize dangerous forces beyond the realm of total control. Red also signified death, destruction, and anger. Expressions such as "desher ieb" meaning "furious" (literally meaning "red of the heart") was used. Egyptian scribes used red ink instead of the usual black ink to write the hieroglyph for "evil" and for the names of monsters and unlucky days of the year. Red was also used for the skin color of male figure without a negative connotation.
Meaning in Many, the Symbolism of Numbers is the sixth chapter. This chapter describes the significance of numbers in Egyptian art. Wilkinson explains that numbers in the visual arts may have had different significance than they did in Egyptian literature. There really is no way to tell what a number's meaning really was or what it suggested. The author describes the numbers 2, 3, 4,and 7, and how they were important to the Egyptians. Two was the number of duality and unity. Three was the number of plurality. Four was the number of totality and completeness. Seven is thought to be the sum of three and four symbolically, plurality, totality and completeness. An example would be the god Ra was thought to have seven "Bas" or souls. Several other deities were thought to be "sevenfold".
The seventh chapter, Words as Magic, Words as Art, the Symbolism of Hieroglyphs, describes the close link between writing and art in Egyptian art. Wilkinson says that, "Not only did the hieroglyphs command a measure of respect as a divinely appointed system of communication, but in many instances, they were also treated virtually as living things - entities which were themselves endowed with divine power". Hieroglyphic signs may appear on a primary level or on a secondary level of depiction. On a primary level, hieroglyphs are written clearly in their normal forms. This may be seen in artworks that not only portray an individual, but also spell out the individual's name in the composition. An example is the statuette of Ramesses II as a solar child. The king is shown as a small child sitting with his finger in his mouth that is the pose for "mes" meaning "child". On the king's head is a sun or "re" disk, and in his left hand he holds a stylized "su" plant. The statue not only physically represents the king, but also spells out his name, Ra-mes-su or Ramesses. On the secondary level, objects or figures are drawn to suggest a hieroglyph. An example of this is a figure's arms positioned to look similar to the "ka" sign.
The eighth chapter, Significant Activity, the Symbolism of Actions, is about the scenes an Egyptian figure is most likely to be found in. Most of these actions are based on "real life" events while some are based on mythical events. Some actions will stretch the truth to border both reality and myth. An example of this may be the king being instructed by the gods on how to fire an arrow from a bow. Although the king had to have instruction in this, the direct tutoring from the gods makes this instruction more powerful.
The last chapter, The Language of the Body, the Symbolism of Gestures, is similar to the previous chapter on actions. It discusses the individual movements, poses and stances the Egyptian figure may be found in. Gestures are divided into two categories, independent and sequential. An independent gesture is performed without reference to another gesture. One example is the "crossed arms" gesture seen on many mummies and statues. This gesture is a reference to the god Osiris and is complete. A sequential gesture exists as a part of a larger complex of activities, actions, and gestures. This type of gesture usually shows the height of this sequence and represents the whole chain of movements in that sequence. Some examples of gestures are dominance, submission, protection, praise, invocation, offering, mourning, and rejoicing. An example in the gesture of dominance is the dominating figure shown with one arm raised "at the height of its movement" ready to strike down their enemy.
This book was very interesting and extremely helpful to my study. There are a few chapters that got away from the figure, but the book generally stayed on the subject of painting and sculpture. It also answered many questions I had about why the artists painted and sculpted the way they did. This book gave just enough information without going too deep into the religious and social aspects of Egyptian culture. I would recommend this book to anyone who wants a "crash course" on Egyptian symbolism.
Richard H. Wilkinson has a Ph.D. in Egyptology and Near Eastern Cultures and Languages from the University of Minnisota's Center for Ancient Studies. He has also done post-doctoral studies as a scholar in residence at UCLA. He currently lectures in ancient and Egyptian culture and Egyptian hieroglyphics at the University of Arizona. He is President of the Arizona Chapter of the American Research Center in Egypt, the official Egyptological association of the United States. He has traveled extensively in the Middle East and participated in many excavations, his most recent being in the Valley of the Kings. Other books published by Wilkinson are Reading Egyptian Art, which is a companion to this book.